April 2025

Introduction

• This submission is being made on behalf of the New Zealand International Business Forum (NZIBF), whose members are listed at Annex A[1]. NZIBF is a group of senior business leaders working together to promote New Zealand’s engagement in the global economy.

• NZIBF strongly supports the bilateral free trade negotiations which were announced during the Prime Minister’s visit to India in March 2025. The two economies are complementary, and a commercially meaningful FTA could deliver an outcome of significant mutual benefit. While conscious of earlier attempts to conclude an FTA with India, NZIBF strongly believes that the goal of the FTA should be balanced, ambitious, comprehensive, and mutually beneficial, as agreed in the Joint Statement between the Prime Ministers of India and New Zealand.

• This means that any FTA between India and New Zealand must be a commercially meaningful agreement with a commitment to eliminate as many barriers as possible in all goods and services sectors by an agreed deadline. NZIBF defines “comprehensive” as including all the key sectors and products of interest to the two economies. Where full tariff elimination is not able to be secured, priority must be given to securing rules that ensure New Zealand exporters maintain parity with our international competitors over the long-term and that the agreement is subject to future reviews and improvements over time.

• NZIBF is pleased to see from the two Prime Ministers’ statements that there are no a priori sectoral exclusions from the scope of the negotiations. Because growth is a central part of the Government’s agenda, New Zealand needs an FTA outcome that delivers for all its largest export sectors.

Summary

• The expected future growth in India’s population and average disposable incomes, and an increased demand for improved food quality are all factors which make the Indian market an attractive export destination for New Zealand exports. The Indian market is of high interest to the sectors and companies making up NZIBF’s membership. Opportunities lie in the dairy, sheepmeat, horticulture, wood processing, education, and tourism sectors, if barriers to trade can be brought down.

• NZIBF supports the conclusion of a comprehensive and commercially meaningful agreement, which covers all sectors and incorporates all the elements reflected in agreements New Zealand has concluded with other major economies in recent years. The FTA should therefore encompass issues of relevance to both sides including market access for goods and services, investment, competition policy, intellectual property, digital including paperless trade, government procurement, labour standards, environment, and gender. The New Zealand Government’s right to safeguard the provisions of the Treaty of Waitangi should be fully protected, along with the right to regulate in the national interest.

• A comprehensive FTA is one part of a wider strategy to build the relationship with India. NZIBF strongly supports the ongoing development of a national strategy to advance the relationship across multiple sectors including science and technology, education, and people to people linkages.

About the NZ International Business Forum (NZIBF)

• NZIBF provides a voice to articulate the needs and priorities of New Zealand’s international business community, and particularly the importance of open markets, to the New Zealand Government and public stakeholders. The NZIBF Board brings together leaders from amongst New Zealand’s largest internationally oriented companies and peak business organisations representing major sectors of the New Zealand economy.

The case for increased trade with India

• India is emerging as an economic superpower and a comprehensive FTA is of genuine strategic significance for New Zealand. India’s economic growth is expected to remain robust over the next five years, with estimates that the annual growth rate will be about 6.5 to 7 per cent over that period. IMF data suggests India is likely to overtake Japan’s economy in 2025 and Germany’s in 2027, giving it the third-largest GDP in the world.[2] India’s geo-strategic significance is growing in accordance with its economic development.

• Despite India’s rapid growth, bilateral trade is significantly lower than what it could be. Over the past five years, New Zealand’s exports to India have been on a downward trend. In 2018 goods exports were valued at NZ$ 1.04 billion, but this figure has since declined, with exports in calendar year 2024 valued at NZ$ 718 million, representing an annualised decrease of about 12 percent. Key factors influencing this trend include prohibitive tariff levels, issues related to India’s log treatment regime, as well as global trade dynamics. New Zealand ranks only 83^rd amongst India’s 220 export markets.[3]

• Despite New Zealand’s obvious strengths in food and beverage, F&B exports in calendar year 2024 accounted for only about 14 per cent (NZ$ 99 million) of New Zealand’s total goods exports to India (NZ$718 million). With better market access there are significant prospects for New Zealand to meet India’s increasing need for high quality food. NZTE notes that India’s food and beverage sector is expected to grow by 7 per cent over the next five years.[4]

• By contrast, Indian exports to New Zealand have grown significantly during the last ten years, doubling from $0.58 billion in 2015 to $1.17 billion in calendar year 2024. This growth has been driven by rising demand for products like mineral fuels, electronics, and textiles.

Market opportunities for New Zealand in India

Dairy

• India is a massive dairy producer and consumer of milk and dairy products. It is the world’s largest producer of milk, with production reaching approximately 239 million metric tons in the fiscal year 2024, marking a steady annual growth of about 3.8 percent.[5] India’s significant Hindu population means that an estimated 40 per cent of people follow a lacto-vegetarian diet, relying on dairy sources for protein. India has the second lowest meat consumption per capita in the world and so dairy offers a vital solution even for non-vegetarians.[6]

• While Indian milk production has been growing, so has consumption, driven by factors like population growth, rising incomes, and increasing awareness of nutrition. Despite this, per capita protein consumption in India is significantly below the recommendations of the Indian Council of Medical Research.[7] Over the next 25 years it is likely that India will in fact face a significant dairy supply gap.

• India has a large, growing and very sophisticated dairy consuming population and there are significant commercial opportunities in a market of this scale. NZIBF acknowledges that dairy is a sector with high political sensitivity in India and it is a sector that provides livelihoods for large numbers of small farmers.[8] India’s tariffs on dairy products range from 30 to 60 percent, making exports of New Zealand products to India difficult.

• Nonetheless, India imported approximately NZ$400m in dairy products in the 2024 calendar year, of which only 14% is imported from New Zealand. There speaks to their being significant potential to deepen the dairy trade relationship.

• Like India, dairy is also a critical part of the New Zealand economy, representing about 35 per cent of New Zealand’s total goods exports. Putting dairy in perspective, however, New Zealand produces only 2 per cent of the world’s milk production, while Indian dairy demand is significant and forecast to continue to grow. New Zealand can help India to meet its growing dairy demand through the supply of products that complement domestically produced dairy products and make a mutually beneficial contribution to economic growth in both countries. For example, supply of high-quality New Zealand dairy ingredients will support Indian food manufacturing jobs. With better market access, the growth in Indian consumption points to opportunities to supply high value products to Indian customers and consumers.

Sheepmeat

• A tariff of 33 per cent has limited the growth of New Zealand sheep meat exports to India in a highly price sensitive market with annual sales fluctuating around $2-3 million in the last ten years and achieving $1.03 million in calendar year 2024. Australia secured a reduction of the sheepmeat tariff to zero in the interim 2022 Economic Co-operation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) with India. Despite this tariff reduction, Australia’s sheepmeat exports to India have remained low, indicating that factors beyond tariffs also influence market access. Moving product about India is often difficult and effective distribution and close relationships with customers will be a vital part of success in this market.[9]

Horticulture

• NZIBF notes the signing of a joint Memorandum of Cooperation on Horticulture in March 2025. This is a positive outcome, focusing on technical exchanges, improved harvest and post-harvest management, training, and the sharing of technological expertise, creating additional opportunities for Indian producers and New Zealand horticultural exporters alike.

• Although apple exports to India fell due to significantly reduced production in 2023, figures for the year ended 2024 show a strong return with sales of NZ$58.53 million after the drop which reflected the devastating impact of Cyclone Gabrielle. The last ten years has shown a clear trend of increasing demand for New Zealand apples in India, despite a high 50 per cent tariff on imports.[10]The growth in demand is attributed to factors such as increased focus on health, complementary growing seasons between New Zealand and India, and active efforts by New Zealand exporters to expand in the Indian market.  Even so the continuing high tariff will deter further investment in the market and depress returns to New Zealand exporters and growers.

• Kiwifruit are becoming more popular in India, with demand being satisfied by a combination of domestic production and imports from New Zealand, Italy, and Chile. Chilean kiwifruit has benefitted from import tariffs set at 15 per cent, half the rate faced by New Zealand producers, as the result of a preferential trade agreement concluded by Chile in 2017.[11] Italian kiwifruit is likely to be targeted in future EU trade negotiations with India.

• To meet demand for kiwifruit, the Indian government is introducing initiatives aimed at boosting local cultivation.[12] The Indian industry is at an early stage of development, and New Zealand has much to offer. Zespri’s strategy is to help grow demand for the fruit in India by supporting the Indian industry.

Wine

• Growth of wine consumption in India is emerging among young adults and there is increasing exposure to wine culture in India’s major cities. Higher incomes amongst middle and upper middle classes enable consumers to explore premium wines and wine consumption is increasingly seen as a sophisticated choice and a status symbol.[13]

• Tariffs prevent the investment required by New Zealand companies to position New Zealand wine in the Indian market. Tariffs faced by Australian premium producers (CIF value > US$15 per 750ml bottle) were reduced from 150 per cent to 75 per cent upon entry into force of ECTA. These tariffs will decrease by 5 per cent annually over 10 years, reaching 25 per cent by 2032.[14]   At this tariff rate, wine is likely to remain a niche opportunity for New Zealand exporters.

Seafood

• There is a very limited market for imported seafood in India at present and although a distribution system is developing, this is also limited. New Zealand exporters receive periodic enquiries which founder on price and supply chain complexity, but Indian opportunities will emerge in the medium-long term. A reduction in tariff levels would certainly make the Indian market more attractive to New Zealand suppliers. Being able to pre-register species and formats would also be an advantage.

Wood products

• New Zealand’s main wood product exports to India have been logs and wood pulp. Sales fell from a high of NZ$ 326 million in 2019 to NZ$ 64 million in 2024. The collapse in log exports was a direct result of Indian phytosanitary requirements, which require fumigation with methyl bromide prior to ships leaving New Zealand. With the phasing out of methyl bromide use within New Zealand at the start of 2023, alternative solutions are being explored to meet Indian phytosanitary standards.[15]

• Indicative Indian tariffs on wood products vary between 5.5 per cent and 30 per cent depending on the type of processed wood product. For example, sawn timber in varying dimensions is at 10 per cent, pulp at 5-10 per cent and paper at 10-20 per cent. Import fees include basic duty, an integrated goods and services tax, and a social welfare surcharge. Complex tariff and fee systems and a lack of transparency in determining duties and charges, in addition to state and local taxes and charges all increase the cost of imported wood products. By way of comparison, most wood and pulp tariffs for the Australian forest industry were eliminated from the entry into force of the Australian ECTA with India in 2022.

• Lengthy, bureaucratic customs and entry procedures and inconsistent application of customs valuation criteria further increase the costs of imported wood products.

• NZIBF notes the signing of a Letter of Intent on Forestry Cooperation in March 2025 by Trade Minister McClay. This focuses on key areas, including technical exchanges, improvements in harvest and post-harvest management, training programmes, and the sharing of technological expertise. With recent stipulations by the Indian government that more wood should be used in residential construction, there are potential opportunities for New Zealand’s forestry sector and its sustainably produced products.[16]

Wool

• India has been an important customer of New Zealand strong wool for decades, importing $77 million of greasy and scoured wool in calendar year 2024. It accounted for about 16 percent of total strong wool exports in 2024, with India ranking as a bigger buyer of this category than China. India exported NZ$ 60 billion of textile and fashion products in 2024 and has set a national goal to triple sales to NZ$180 billion by 2030.[17]

Education

• The value of education to New Zealand’s economic relationship with India is significant and growing. In 2025 10,600 Indian students enrolled in New Zealand educational institutions, up 34 percent on 2023.[18] Education New Zealand (ENZ) has identified India as a key growth market for international student recruitment as part of its strategy to double the value of New Zealand’s international education sector to NZ$4.4 billion by 2027[19] .

• Immigration and visa issues have been a constant issue in developing the education market. In 2024 it was reported that Immigration New Zealand was rejecting almost 50 percent of visa applications and had detected high levels of suspected fraud.[20]

• In March 2025, leading Indian newspapers ran positive stories about this country, reporting that New Zealand’s streamlined visa processes, work-rights policies, and the introduction of NZ$ 10,000 scholarships for high-achieving Indian students highlighted the Government’s commitment to attracting global talent. Enrolments from India in New Zealand are expected to almost double between 2025 and 2030.[21] A growing educational relationship will contribute not only to economic benefits but also to stronger cultural and social ties between New Zealand and India.

Tourism and airlinks

• NZIBF welcomes the signing of The India-New Zealand Air Services Agreement in March 2025 by Air India and Air New Zealand. This promises to enhance air connectivity between the two countries, including the establishment of codeshare partnerships and the exploration of direct flight services by 2028. Growth in tourism and the development of direct airlinks would not only strengthen bilateral trade links but promises to bring people from both countries closer together, ease the travel burden for the Indian diaspora in New Zealand and build engagement across all aspects of the relationship.

Specific issues in the negotiation

• NZIBF believes that the FTA should conform fully to Article XXIV (8) (b) of the WTO’s General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which stipulates that FTAs should cover “substantially all trade” of the participating countries.

Goods

• NZIBF recommends that the negotiations should aim, if not for complete tariff elimination across all sectors, then the elimination of as many tariffs as possible between India and New Zealand. NZIBF believes it is critical to include tariff reduction and where possible, elimination in all tariff lines of major export interest to both countries. This includes dairy, sheepmeat and horticulture (apples and kiwifruit). Tariff action should be accompanied by complementary disciplines intended to ensure that only robust and at most minimally trade-restrictive non-tariff measures, designed to meet legitimate policy objectives, remain in place.

• Where full tariff elimination is not able to be secured, then priority must be given to securing rules that ensure New Zealand exporters maintain a level playing field with our international competitors over the long-term and that the agreement is subject to future reviews and improvements over time.

• NZIBF supports the inclusion of ambitious trade-facilitating provisions associated with goods trade, including around rules of origin, regulatory coherence including mutual recognition of goods standards and conformity assessment.

Services

• Seeking to lock in and liberalise commitments on services trade, via a “negative list” approach, has the potential to grow that important sector in

key areas of interest to New Zealand exporters, including in relation to global value chains, and to deepen regulatory coherence and cooperation on behind-the-border issues of concern to business. Reforming rules around skilled labour mobility/limitations on the temporary movement of businesspeople, visa requirements, commercial presence, the recognition of qualifications and other complex regulatory requirements would enhance New Zealand services exports to India.

Digital and Paperless Trade

• NZIBF supports the adoption of high-quality provisions aimed at delivering end-to-end, secure, and trusted paperless trade. Ideally these provisions should go beyond the language of exhortation, to deliver actual improvements in paperless trade practices, recognising equivalence between paper and data-driven systems. For example, promote the use of open global digital and data standards, protocols and organisations as best practice to support interoperability[22]. NZIBF recognises the complexity of such undertakings, including in our own domestic environment. NZIBF is making other representations to the New Zealand Government on this matter.

• NZIBF also encourages New Zealand to seek to negotiate a forward-looking, ambitious digital trade-friendly outcome in the FTA, including a high-quality outcome on electronic commerce, recognising the transformative power of the digital economy. Such an outcome should include free cross-border data flows for business, subject to appropriate provisions to protect consumer privacy, enhance trust and promote cyber security, in such a way that those protections do not function as a disguised barrier to trade.

• Another concrete deliverable would be a commitment to on-going cooperation in this area. For example, the recently signed EU-India Joint Statement recognised the importance of Digital Public Infrastructure and the need for e-signatures to support digital transactions, as well as cooperating on AI.[23] A similar example is the EU-Japan MOU on digital identities and trust services.[24] This could be taken one step further by developing specific pilot projects aimed at proof of concept (e.g., electronic Country of Origin).[25]

• Neither New Zealand nor India has adopted relevant provisions in the Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records (MLETR). NZIBF understands that India has begun taking some concrete steps towards this end. Key developments include exploring MLETR with policymakers and stakeholders. A significant amendment to the India Bill of Lading Act 1856 was passed in March 2025, making progress towards the digitisation of trade documentation.[26] This amendment clarifies rights transfer and establishes bills of lading as conclusive evidence, aligning with electronic transferable records.

• India has also initiated efforts to adopt electronic bills of lading (e-B/Ls) for its maritime industry, supported by the Ministry of Shipping. These efforts are part of broader initiatives under India’s Electronic Port Community System. Such initiatives illustrate India’s commitment to modernising trade processes, although, as in New Zealand, significant legislative and technical work remains to fully implement a framework consistent with MLETR.

Investment

• NZIBF is a longstanding and strong supporter of foreign investment in New Zealand and of provisions in our trade agreements which provide appropriate protection for foreign investment (inward and outward), while also recognising the Government’s continuing right to regulate in the public interest.

• NZIBF recognises that the New Zealand Government opposes the inclusion of Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) in FTAs but continues to see value in these protections.

• Indian investment in New Zealand covers several sectors, including technology, banking, consultancy, and education. Indian companies have shown interest in New Zealand’s dairy and horticulture industries, and in taking advantage of the country’s expertise in sustainable farming practices. Additionally, Indian IT firms have established operations in New Zealand to support digital transformation initiatives.

• Binsar Farms Pvt. Ltd. is a successful New Zealand/India joint venture which illustrates the blending of New Zealand dairy tech with a ‘no-frills’ approach adapted for Indian conditions. Other New Zealand companies such as Fisher and Paykel Healthcare and Rakon have invested in manufacturing operations in India.

• In the context of a successful overall outcome for the FTA, NZIBF would support the increase in investment screening thresholds for India along the lines granted to other FTA partners.

Other issues

• NZIBF believes that the FTA should include provisions such as exist in other agreements to address good regulatory practice and regulatory coherence, competition policy, intellectual property protection, government procurement, trade remedies, labour, and environmental issues. The New Zealand Government should seek to ensure that the FTA does not impair the ability of the Crown to honour its obligations to Māori under the Treaty of Waitangi. The general protections for governments to act to make and implement legitimate public policy should also be included.

• An appropriate focus should also be given to ensuring that trade is both inclusive and sustainable. NZIBF believes that provisions should be included in the FTA that would ensure that all can benefit from the gains from trade, including helping small and medium-sized enterprises, women, Māori and disadvantaged regions to participate more successfully in trade and global value chains, and that trade is environmentally and developmentally sustainable.

• The FTA could provide a useful opportunity to develop sustainability principles that do not impede trade. For instance, recognition that domestic production systems can vary and lead to sustainable outcomes without overly prescriptive approaches would help offset the preponderance of non- tariff barriers in the Indian market.

Priority issues for India

• NZIBF believes it appropriate that issues of particular concern or priority for India should be included in the negotiating agenda.

• New Zealand’s immigration settings have been an occasional source of irritation in the bilateral relationship as noted in our comments about education above. NZIBF anticipates that immigration will be a point likely to be raised by Indian FTA negotiators. NZIBF supports refinement and streamlining processes around visitor visas and those issued for business and permanent immigration purposes. Consistency, transparency, and non-discrimination in the issuing of visa approvals will benefit both FTA partners. New Zealand increasingly needs highly skilled and specialised people for roles in sectors like health and IT and while India can benefit from professional and work experience gained in New Zealand it is not in India’s interests to export large numbers of its best and brightest.

Transparency  

• NZIBF supports an inclusive and consultative negotiating process and one which allows all stakeholders the opportunity to have their voices heard. The negotiating process should be as transparent and maximally inclusive as the negotiation’s parameters and sensitivities of the negotiating partners allow.

Other considerations

• NZIBF believes that government to government links will not, of themselves, ensure New Zealand’s economic interests in India are maximised. Adding to New Zealand’s diplomatic resources in India is long overdue given the growing complexity of the relationship. NZIBF recommends the development of a well-considered multi-sector vision and strategy for the relationship. Such a strategy should include tangible and measurable objectives covering bilateral goods and services trade and investment and the potential for New Zealand to contribute to the development of India’s key sectors. We note that An India Economic Strategy to 2035 was published in Australia several years before the signing of the ECTA in 2022. This review provided early evidence of the vision and ambition of both India and Australia and the results that have flowed since have been significant.[27]  An update of this strategy has recently been issued.

• NZIBF supports the establishment of an India/New Zealand advisory body, like the NZ/US and NZ/China Councils and the Australia New Zealand Leadership Forum. Such a body would support the expansion of trade links by drawing stakeholder expertise to provide the New Zealand Government with practical guidance on economic interests, support for building the New Zealand constituency in India as well as building public support for the relationship[28]. It is also worth noting that in May 2011, when Australia announced the launch of what became ECTA, the creation of an Australia-India CEO Forum to provide guidance and advice to the Governments of Australia and India was also announced.

Conclusion

• NZIBF recognises earlier attempts to secure an FTA with India both bilaterally and in the concept of RCEP [29]. These attempts floundered on the principle of comprehensiveness. NZIBF continues to believe this principle remains strategically important to maintain the integrity of New Zealand’s trade policy at a time when there is severe strain on the international trading system.

• NZIBF is grateful for the opportunity to participate in this consultation. NZIBF looks forward to working closely with the Government to support a successful outcome to these negotiations.

Recommendations to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade

NZIBF recommends that the Ministry:

• note NZIBF’s support for the negotiation of a comprehensive and commercially meaningful FTA between New Zealand and India

• agree that the goal of the FTA should be the elimination of as many barriers as possible in all goods and services sectors by an agreed deadline without a priori sectoral exclusions from the scope of the negotiations

• agree that where full elimination if not able to be secured, priority should be given to securing rules that ensure New Zealand exporters maintain a level playing field with our international competitors and that the agreement is subject to review and improvement over time

• agree that the negotiating agenda should encompass all issues of relevance to both countries including market access for goods and services, investment, digital and paperless trade, competition policy, intellectual property, government procurement, labour, environmental issues, and Treaty of Waitangi provisions

• consult widely with sectors likely to be influenced directly by the negotiation

• agree to develop a wider strategy for building the relationship with India.

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[1] The view in this submission is that of NZIBF. Individual members may have different views on specific issues covered in this submission. Many NZIBF member organisations will be making their own submissions to MFAT on the proposed FTA.

[2] https://www.financialexpress.com/policy/economy-indias-gdp-doubles-in-10-years-to-4-3-trillion-to-outpace-world-with-105-rise-imf-3789035

[3] www.tradingeconomics.com

[4] https://my.nzte.govt.nz/article/20241114-opportunities-in-indias-food-and-beverage-sector

[5] Press Release: Press Information Bureau

[6] ADIC/DA Submission to A New Roadmap for Australia’s Economic Engagement with India –DFAT – August 2024

[7] India’s milk consumption expected to rise in 2025 | The Dairy Site

[8] Dairy is sensitive sector; no plans to open up in any FTAs: Piyush Goyal
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/dairy-is-sensitive-sector-no-plans-to-open-up-in-any-ftas-piyush-goyal/articleshow/113653014.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

[9] https://www.farmersweekly.co.nz/politics/sheepmeat-exporters-temper-india-fta-expectations/

[10] Exports have grown from $23.34 million in calendar year 2015 to $58.53 million in 2024 according to Statistics New Zealand trade data.

[11] https://www.eurofresh-distribution.com/news/campaign-to-promote-chilean-kiwi-in-india/.

[12] www.mynzte.govt.nz

[13] https://indusfood.co.in/article/indias-wine-industry/

[14] https://www.agw.org.au/australia-india-economic-cooperation-and-trade-agreement-what-does-it-mean-for-australian-wine/

[15] https://www.epa.govt.nz/hazardous-substances/rules-notices-and-how-to-comply/specific-substance-guidance/methyl-bromide/

[16]https://wpma.org.nz/assets/Media-Releases/India-NZ-Memorandum-signed-18-March-2025.pdf

[17]https://www.farmersweekly.co.nz/special-report/the-future-of-wool/huge-potential-for-nz-strong-wool-in-india/

[18] https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/indonz/556364/new-zealand-deepens-education-ties-with-india

[19] https://www.researchprofessionalnews.com/rr-news-new-zealand-2024-8-new-zealand-sets-growth-target-for-international-education/

[20] https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/top/513397/immigration-declines-nearly-half-of-study-visa-applications-from-india-so-far-this-year

[21] https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/diaspora/indian-student-enrolments-in-new-zealand-surge-by-48-9-per-cent-expected-to-nearly-double-by-2030/.The Hindustan Times ran a similarly positive story in March 2025.

[22] Examples of open digital standards that support secure, scalable and trusted data sharing are ISO/IEC 15459 for trusted business identity (the NZBN uses this standard); and ISO/IEC 18975:2024 for digital labelling – as it enables linking physical products to digital information.

[23]  https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/statement_25_643

[24] EU-Japan Memorandum of Cooperation on Digital Identities and Trust services to implement Data Free Flow with Trust | Shaping Europe’s digital future

[25] India has been working on paperless trade, implementing reforms and making investments. While it is certainly not without its challenges, it has launched an electronic Country of Origin platform Common Digital Platform for Issuance of Certificate of Origin

[26] https://www.finextra.com/blogposting/28064/amendment-to-bill-of-lading-act-a-boost-to-indias-digital-trade-ambitions

[27] This report was published in 2018. https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/trade-and-investment/india-economic-strategy/ies/overview.html

[28] A high-level business forum was advocated by the India New Zealand Business Council in its 2023 report India and New Zealand: A Relationship Ready for its Next Phase, p.16

[29] RCEP= Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, from which India withdrew in 2018.